Risk Factors Analysis of Mycoplasma Gallisepticum Infection

Risk Factors Analysis of Mycoplasma Gallisepticum Infection Seroprevallence and risk factors analysis of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection of chickens in Bhola district, Bangladesh. Mahfuzul Islam  and Md. Shahidur Rahman Khan ABSTRACT This study was aimed to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors (types of chickens, age groups and seasons) of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection in chickens. The study was conducted from April 2011 to March 2012. A total of 480 blood samples were collected considering types of chicken (backyard chicken and commercial layer chicken), age groups (pullet, adult and old) and seasons (summer and winter) from different upazila of Bhola district of Bangladesh. On the basis of serum plate agglutination test, 268 chickens were found positive for MG (55.83%). According to the results, the higher (62.5%) and lower (53.61%) prevalence of MG infection was found in backyard chickens and commercial layer chicken respectively. The prevalence was recorded highest in pullets (60.63%) followed by adult (55.63%) and old chickens (51.25%), respectively. The prevalence was highest (60.42%) in winter and lowest (51.25%) in summer. It is usually recommended that MG infection is still an importan t disease problem in chickens in Bangladesh. So, preventive strategies, such as appropriate husbandry and hygiene, sanitary handling of chicks and eggs, routine health monitoring, chemoprophylaxis and vaccination should be emphasized. Keywords: chickens, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, risk factors, seroprevalence. INTRODUCTION In Bangladesh, poultry industry has made remarkable progress in the last decades from a backyard venture to a considerably sophisticated commercial industry. In spite of the rapid growth of poultry industry, it is still prone to certain infectious threats which may cause great economic losses. Inadequate measures adopted by the stakeholders for the control of diseases in addition to certain management problems have rendered the poultry farming a risky business. A number of microbial diseases are the major health hazards being faced by poultry industry, among which mycoplasmosis is the most important. Mycoplasmosis is caused by four major pathogens viz. M. gallisepticum (MG), M. synoviae (MS), M. meleagrides (MM) and M. iowae (MI) (Bradbury, 2001 and Evans et al., 2005) of which MG is the most important species that causes chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chickens (Ley, 2008). Birds of all age groups are susceptible to this disease but young birds are more prone to infection than adults (Seifi and Shirzad, 2012). MG is readily transmitted horizontally from both clinically infected and carrier birds through direct contact. Mycoplasma organisms can survive in the host bird for approximately 24 hours and fomites can serve as an infectious route. Vertical transmission from some carrier birds occurs through trans-ovarian transmission. Poultry can carry the MG organisms with no clinical signs until a stressful event triggers clinical disease. Incubation period varies from 6-21 days and presentation of clinical signs can be highly variable (Ley, 2008). The clinical signs with MG infection in chicken include respiratory rales, nasal discharge, coughing, and occasionally conjunctivitis (Ley, 2003). MG can be diagnosed by studying their different properties such as morphological, cultural characteristics, biochemical and serological properties of the causal agent (Ley, 2008). Among serological tests the serum plate agglutination (SPA) test could be used as a tool for quick detection of MG infection (Seifi and Shirzad, 2012). Commercially available attenuated strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) are commonly used as vaccine within the layer industry to control MG-induced mycoplasmosis (Evans et al., 2012). However, total eradication of MG infection through test and slaughter is the most effective control method (Ley, 2003). But in practical it is expensive and the emergence of multiage complexes in the commercial layer industry makes this approach impractical (Levisohn and Kleven, 2000). Due to economic importance diagnosis and prophylaxis of avian mycoplasmosis have received attention. Reports on seroprevalence of mycoplasmosis in chickens are very much limited in the Bhola district of Bangladesh. So, the aim of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection in chickens and analysis the risk factors (types of chickens, age groups and seasons) to take effective control measures such as appropr iate husbandry and hygiene, sanitary handling of chicks and eggs, routine health monitoring, chemoprophylaxis and vaccination. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was conducted in the Laboratory of District veterinary hospital, District Livestock Office, Bhola, Bangladesh during the period from April 2011 to March 2012. Study area and selection of bird: A total of 480 blood samples were collected from the wing vein of unvaccinated and healthy chickens considering types of chicken (Backyard Chicken and Commercial layer Chicken), age groups (pullet, adult and old) and seasons (summer and winter) from different upazila of Bhola district of Bangladesh Blood collection and serum preparation: In live birds, 2 mL blood were collected from wing vein by using fresh disposable plastic syringe (5 mL) and collected blood was kept in room temperature for about 1-2 hour(s). A clean straw color serum was seen around the clotted clump and the serum was poured into a labeled screw capped vial and stored at -20 ºC until used. Serum plate agglutination (SPA) test: The SPA test was conducted with crystal violet stained M. gallisepticum commercial antigen (Nobilis ® MG) obtained from Intervet Company Ltd. (The Netherlands). Following the manufacturers instruction, 0.03 mL antigen and 0.03 mL serum was placed side by side with pipette in a glass plate and mixed well by stirring with glass rod, followed by rocking. Results were read within 2 min. In positive cases granules were formed slowly which could be seen during rocking. In the negative case, no such granules were formed. Agglutination was assigned score from +1 to +3. Only the sera samples having agglutination score +2 or greater were recorded as positive and were included for calculation of percent prevalence. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Overall prevalence of MG infection in backyard and commercial layer chicken The overall prevalence of MG infection was 55.83% (Table 1). The present finding is in agreement with previous reports of Godoy et al. (2001), Biswas et al. (2003) and Zhang et al. (2001) who reported 59.1%, 54.9% and 53.0% seroprevalence of MG infection in chickens, respectively. Results also showed a higher prevalence of M. gallisepticum in backyard checkens (62.5%) as compared to commercial layer chicken (53.61%). Hossain et al. (2007) showed the overall seroprevalence of MG infection in different flocks of commercial layer chicken in Rajshahi district of Bangladesh was recorded as 55.13%. Similar reports were demonstrated by Sikder et al. (2005) who reported 56.9% seropositive layer chickens for MG infection in Patuakhali district and by Sarkar et al. (2005) who reported 58.9% seropositive layer chickens for MG infection in some model breeder poultry farms in Feni district of Bangladesh. On the other hand, there was no seroprevallence data available in case of backyard checkens. But in this studty the higher prevalence of M. gallisepticum in backyard checkens is may be due to more natural infection. Prevalence of MG infection in different ages Results showed the maximum prevalence in pullets (60.63%) followed by adult (55.63%) and old (51.25) chickens, respectively (Table 2). Previously, Mukhtar et al. (2012) recorded the highest prevalence (54.84 %) was found in pullets, followed by 46.34 %, and 44.44 % in adult and old laying flocks, respectively. This finding also supports the report of Hossain et al. (2007) who recorded the highest prevalence of MG infection was 72.72% in 18-25 weeks age group whereas lowest prevalence was 44.00% in 66 weeks and above age group. Similar report was also demonstrated by Sikder et al. (2005) who reported highest MG infection (71.42%) at 18 weeks of age and lowest (55.17%) at 63 weeks of age. This finding also supports the report of Sarkar et al. (2005) who recorded 73.80% MG infection at 20 weeks of age in comparison to 45.16% at 55 weeks of age. Highest infection in the young chickens is due to the vertical transmission of the organisms. Seasonal incidence of MG infection Results showed a higher prevalence of M. gallisepticum in winter (60.42%) as compared to the summer (51.25%) season (Table 3) and similar report was published earlier (Sarkar et al., 2005) that reported 62.4% prevalence of MG infection in winter in comparison to 53.1% in summer. Similar to our findings, higher prevalence of MG infection during winter season (61.48 %) than in summer (47.74 %) has been reported earlier (Heleili et al., 2011). Mukhtar et al. (2012) showed the disease was more prevalent in winter season (45.13 %) in comparison with the summer season (36.30 %). Hossain et al. (2007) showed the seropositivity in chickens was 61.49% in winter compared to 47.74% in summer. Similar report was demonstrated by Sarkar et al. (2005) who reported 62.44% prevalence in winter in comparison to 53.10% in summer. This seasonal variation in infection might be due to the sudden change in temperature and cold stress on the birds. CONCLUSIONS In consequence, M. gallisepticum is prevalent in Bhola district of Bangladesh and also it could cause severe economic losses. The prevalence of MG infection is higher in backyard chickens in comparison to commercial layer chickens. Additionally, it was proved that the occurrence of MG have a consequential relationship with age groups and seasons. Keeping in view, efforts should be made towards educating the poultry farmers for the effective control of MG in both backyard and commercial poultry farms through improving biosecurity. Moreover, detailed studied on the country wide prevalence of MG should be designed to know the current status of disease in Bangladesh. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author expresses his deepest sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to Dr. Pradip Kumar Karmaker, District Livestock Officer, Bhola for his constructive and informative suggestions and constant inspiration in course of the research work period. REFERENCES Biswas PK, Rahman MA, Biswas D, Ahmed S (2003). A longitudinal study on the prevalence of endemic diseases affecting semi-scavenging poultry reared under PLDP area. Paper presented in 9th BSVER Conference, Publication No. 24: 24-25. Bradbury JM (2001). Avian mycoplasmosis. In: Poultry Diseases, 5th edn, W. B. Saunders Company, Iowa, USA; pp 178-193. Evans JD, Leigh SA, Branton SL, Collier SD, Pharr GT and Bearson SM (2005). Mycoplasma gallisepticum: Current and developing means to control the avian pathogen. J. Appl. Poult. Res., 14:757-763. Evans JD, Leigh SA, Purswell JL, Jacob R, Peebles ED, Collier SD, Branton SL (2012). A comparative study of live attenuated F strain-derived Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccines. Avian Dis., Jun;56:396-401. Godoy A, Andrade LF, Colmenares O, Bermudez V, Herrera A, Munoz N (2001). Prevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in egg-laying hens. Vet. Trop., 26: 25-33. Heleili N, Mamache BI, Chelihi A. (2011), Incidence of Avian Mycoplasmosis in theregion of Batna, Eastern Algeria. Vet. World, 4: 101-105. Hossain KMM, Ali MY, Haque MI (2007), Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in chicken in the greater rajshahi district of Bangladesh, Bangladesh J. Vet. Med. 5: 09–14. Levisohn S, Kleven SH (2000). Avian mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma gallisepticum). Rev. Sci. Tech., 19: 425-442. Ley DH (2003). Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection. In: Diseases of poultry. 11th ed. (Calnek BW, Barnes HJ, Beard CW, McDougald LR, Saif YM, eds). Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa; pp 722-744. Ley DH (2008). Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection. In: Disease of Poultry, 12th edn. (Fadly AM, Gilson JR, Mc Dougald LR, Nolan LK and Swanye DE, eds). Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. pp 807-834. Mukhtar M, Awais MM, Anwar MI, Hussain Z, Bhatti N, Ali S (2012), Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum among commercial layers in Faisalabad, Pakistan. J. Basic Appl. Sci., 8: 183-186. Sarkar SK, Rahman MB, Rahman M, Amin KMR, Khan MFR, Rahman MM (2005). Sero-prevalence of Mycoplasma galliseplicum infection in chickens in model breeder poultry farms of Bangladesh. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 4: 32-35. Seifi S and Shirzad MR (2012). Seroprevalence and risk factors of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in Iranian broiler breeder farms. Int. J. Anim. Veter. Adv., 4: 45-48. Sikder AJ, Islam MA, Rahman MM, Rahman MB (2005). Seroprevalence of Salmonella and Mycoplasma gallisetpticum infection in the six model breeder poultry farms at Patuakhili district in Bangladesh. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 4: 905-910. Zhang JH, Wang DRBi MH, Han B, Gao AX (2001). Prevalence and pathogenicity of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in broilers in Inner Mongolia. Chin. J. Vet. Sci. Technol., 31: 12-13. Table 1: Overall seroprevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in chickens Legend: No.=Number, %=Percentage Table 2: Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum among various age group Legend: No.=Number, %=Percentage Table 3: Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum among seasons Legend: No.=Number, %=Percentage 1

Reflection Essay -- Reflection Essay

The assignment instructed to be completed for my Dean’s Seminar class was a study plan. This plan organized my study habits and helped me with my time management. I learned valuable skills that I will incorporate into my daily routine. By sticking with this plan I will be able to see an improvement and progress in my work . I hope to use this template for the rest of my educational career.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of the study skills that I learned have become integral in my study habits. I began to highlight my book for key works and phrases which help me organize the main points the book is articulating. I do not procrastinate as much as I did because I understand about doing my work when it is assigned will help give me free time. I go out to parties and social events only when I have completed all my assignments. Another organizational skill I use is typing up notes. This method helps reinforce the material from lecture and I am able to comprehend the material as I type it up. A valuable tip that I learned is to split up work so that it is not over consuming. I use this skill in all my areas such as reading a section of text every night. It helps in many aspects of studying. I make use of the my time and work diligently at my work. I make sure I am able to have a peaceful working environment where I can concentrate without outside distractions. I found the ideal place for this is the library. For English, I learned about the writing center which helps students...

African American Essay Essay

African American literature is captivating, powerful, spiritual, and emotional. The recurring theme is slavery but there are others such as inequality among sexes and races, injustice, resentment, and the strong belief in religion. These pieces of literature have been told by the individuals who went through the experience of slavery such as Frederick Douglass and others, like Jamaica Kincaid who have a passion for writing. The writers who experienced slavery themselves had differing views of their experience and relationship with their master. These pieces of literature share the pain, strength, heartache and will to go that each of these individuals experienced. The first reading is, To My Old Master, by Jourdan Anderson. This piece of literature is Anderson’s response to a letter he has received from his old master. It is a compelling story about how terrible and bad the Whites treated the African Americans. The master want’s Anderson and his family to come back and work for him. He reminds the master about how poorly they were treated while working for him. Anderson states, â€Å"Although you shot at me twice before I left you, I did not want to hear of your being hurt, and am glad you are still living. † (1865, p. 15). Anderson tells the master that he is making money and his family is living and doing well. He even expresses that his children are receiving an education now. It is very apparent to the reader that Anderson’s wife does not want to return and work for the master. â€Å"Mandy says she would be afraid to go back without some proof that you were disposed to treat us justly and kindly; and we have concluded to test your sincerity by asking you to send us our wages for the time we served you. † (1865, p. 16). Anderson remembers how horribly the woman and girls were treated, and he will never allow his daughters to go through that experience. â€Å"I would stay here and starve- and die, if it come to that- than to have my girls brought to shame by the violence and wickedness of their young masters. † (1865, p. 16) The end of the story the reader still feels Anderson’s resentment and bitterness toward the master. The next story and the one piece I enjoyed the most is, â€Å"White Folks Treated Us Good† by Marriah Hines. Hines states, â€Å"My white people treated us decent. † (p. 32). She goes onto further explain how her master feed, dressed, and kept them well. Hines explains how terrible master’s treated other slaves. â€Å"Some unfortunate individuals practically have nothing to eat. Why, the way their owners treated them was disgraceful treated them like felines and canines† (Hines, p. 32). Hines sounds fortunate and lucky to have worked for her master. The master gave the slaves Sunday off to rest and even allowed them to attend Church. Unlike other slaves Hines was never raped, beaten, or treated in a physical horrible way. The compelling part of this piece occured when the slaves were allowed to leave; most of them choose to stay. â€Å"Most of us stayed right there and raised our own crops. † (p. 34). Hines knew of her freedom but believed in her loyalty to her master and his family. The master provided her with assistance and support. A rare occurrence to read an African American piece of literature that speaks of a master in a positive and respectful manner. This master was a different man of his time. He did not take advantage of his slaves or treat them in a horrendous manner. This master used his slaves to care and run his property but treated them with respect and dignity, they deserved. Hines went onto, marry Benjamin F. Hines and give birth to five children. The last piece of literature is, â€Å"If We Must Die† by Claude McKay. This poem is about how horribly and disgusting Whites treated African Americans. It is written about the race riots in 1919. It describes the strength of the African Americans standing up to the Whites even if it ultimately meant dying. McKay states, â€Å"Like men we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack, pressed to the wall, dying but fighting back! † (p. 378). This poem exemplifies the bravery and the will to fight for what is right otherwise these people would have been beaten and killed for the rest of their lives. There will always be a presence of racism in the world and specifically in the United States of America. Still today African Americans are treated equally as Whites. Although we as a country have come a very long way there is still work to be done. The more we educate people the less we will experience ignorance. The hate and the idea of inferiority will slow diminish if people become educated. I can end proudly stating that I am married to a Black man and we have two beautiful daughters, and I give an enormous amount of respect to those who fought for what was right. References Anderson, J. (1865). To my old master. In I. Reed (Ed. ), African American Literature. Abrief introduction and anthology (pp. 15-16). New York: The Longman LiteraryMosaic Series. [serial online]. December 2005;36(4):299-323. Available from:Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed May 23, 2011. Hines, M. (n. d. ). My white folks treated us good. In I. Reed (Ed. ), African Americanliterature. A brief introduction and anthology (pp. 21-25). New York: TheLongman Literary Mosaic Series. [serial online]. December 2005;36(4):299-323. Available from: Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed May 21,2011. McKay, C. (n. d. ). If we must die. In I. Reed (Ed. ), African American literature. Abriefintroduction and anthology (pp. 378). New York: The Longman LiterarySeries[serial online]. December 2005;36(4):299-323. Available from: AcademicSearchComplete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed Dec, 2011.

The Argument Against Drilling In Alaska’s Arctic National...

Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), the crowned jewel of the nation’s 544 refuges is in danger of destruction (Lamar and Markey 12). ANWR has been in existence since 1960 and has slowly become one of the most controversial topics to hit Congress. ANWR is composed of 19 million acres on the northeast coast of Alaska. Although the government has been provided with this immense land they are fighting to gain more land. Why? ANWR is the second biggest oil field that is owned by the U.S. Now the government wants more land to construct oil reserves. The refuge is home to many endangered species such as migratory birds, polar bears, and wolves (Lynne and Roberts 1). Most of ANWR’s designated oil area is owned by indigenous Alaskan†¦show more content†¦Calf survival rates have been extremely low in areas or mountain range and without their discrete areas caribous are threaten more by predators (Whitten 2004). The reserves will also constrain caribou from moving about because of all the traffic that would be created and the pipe crossings. That’s no way a precious creature should live. That’s why Alaskan natives oppose drilling. Another reason against drilling much research has shown that all the oil that will be produced will only last for about six months. The fact that the British Petroleum has greater potential to produce more oil and natural gasses (Markey 2004) than ANWR so why bother with it , supporting the case that drilling is pointless. Then there is the percentage that after oil production of ANWR, the foreign oil dependency will only drop from 56% to 50% (Markey 2004).Then the oil produced would reach the market ten years later after it was produced, leaving the gas price decrease to one percent(Lamar and Markey 12). There was also the reality of natural gases. ANWR does not confirm any sign of them, when President Bush ordered exploration for natural gasses (Klyza and Ford-Martin 1).Again proving drilling pointless. In addition to concern about changes, was if drilling were to happen the negatives it would create to the tundra. Drilling on any form of earth is harmful in general. But because of how beloved the terrain is to the native, it only creates more conflicts.Show MoreRelatedAlaska Oil Drilling: A Threat to Biodiversity1606 Words   |  6 Pagesthe issue of opening the last of Alaskas pristine frontiers for oil drilling exploration appears may finally be moving towards a long-sought resolution. At the heart of this over thirty-year old conflict, waged bitterly between environmental activists and major petroleum producers, is a parcel of land containing nearly 20 million acres of untouched environmental resources known as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). While the ecological importance of the ANWR region is largely undisputed, asRead MoreArctic National Wildlife Refuge Dispute965 Words   |  4 PagesArctic National Wildlife Refuge, or ANWR, is a refuge geared toward preservin g national wildlife in northeastern Alaska. ANWR is about 19 million acres, in space, and contains a potential drilling spot for oil and petroleum. The potential drilling spot is a small area known as the 10-02 Area. It is only 1.5 million acres, or 8%, of ANWR, would even be considered for development (What is ANWR). The controversy surrounding ANWR is whether to drill or not to drill into the 10-02 area. Some people wantRead MoreDRILLING IN ANWR1374 Words   |  6 PagesRecently, though a new argument has come to Alaska, one that could destroy the traditions of the Gwich’in forever. Politicians, environmentalists, economists and neighbors now fight over the prospect of oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Many of the arguments for drilling are worth consideration; however, in comparison to the evidence against it, they are neither convincing nor compelling. In order to fully understand why drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is such a big deal;Read MoreEssay about Anwr - We Should Drill3741 Words   |  15 PagesANWR: Drilling Mandatory or Unnecessary Shannon Bowerman Hour 7 Laughlin -- February 12, 2008 English Research Paper Shannon Bowerman Hour 7 February 12, 2008 English Research Paper – Introduction Since 1987, the issue of whether or not drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) should be allowed has been one of the concerns of political figures, as well as many Americans. This issue has been fought before the Senate at least